1. Mythical Beginnings: Yan, Huang, and Chiyou

As recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian and Discourses of the States:

  • The Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) defeated the Yan Emperor (Yandi) at the Battle of Banquan, causing the Yan tribe to submit to his rule.
  • He then defeated Chiyou at the Battle of Zhuolu, achieving ultimate victory.

These are not merely legends but symbols of the integration of ancient tribes:

  • The Yellow Emperor’s group: An agricultural tribe from the Central Plains, with the surname Ji.
  • The Yan Emperor’s group: A tribe with the surname Jiang, related to the ancient Qiang people.
  • Chiyou’s group: The Jiuli (Nine Li) tribes, ancestors of the Miao-Man peoples of the south.

Ultimately, the people of the Yan Emperor and Chiyou were incorporated into the Yellow Emperor’s tribe, forming the “Huaxia.”

👉 From the very beginning, the Chinese nation has been a civilizational community that was pluralistic in its existence but ultimately tended toward unity.

2. The Origin of “Hua”: Flower and Mount Hua

In ancient Chinese, “华” (Huà) and “花” (huā, flower) were phonetically similar. The flower, symbolizing prosperity, was likely a totem of an early tribe.

Mount Hua, revered as the Western Sacred Mountain, is the sacred mountain of the “Hua people.”

By the Spring and Autumn period, the Book of Documents · Completion of the War already stated:

The Huaxia and the wild tribes of Man and Mo, none failed to follow and submit.

The Zuo Zhuan · 10th Year of Duke Ding says:

The border tribes do not plot against Xia; the Yi barbarians do not disrupt Hua.

This indicates that “Huaxia” had already become the self-identity of the Central Plains civilization.

👉 The tribal alliance of mythology eventually transformed into a civilizational concept in written records.

3. Evidence of the Xia: Yangshao, Longshan, Erlitou, and Liangzhu

The Xia Dynasty was long considered a “legendary dynasty.”

However, archaeological discoveries have gradually clarified history:

  • Yangshao Culture (c. 5000–3000 BCE, middle Yellow River): Best known for its painted pottery, it was primarily agricultural and formed the basis of the early Huaxia groups in the Central Plains.
  • Longshan Culture (c. 3000–1900 BCE, lower Yellow River): The emergence of black pottery and city sites indicates increased social stratification and the initial form of a state, a key stage leading to the Xia.
  • Erlitou Culture (c. 1900–1500 BCE, Yanshi, Henan): With its palaces, roads, and bronze ritual vessels, it shows centralized power and is widely believed to be associated with the Xia Dynasty, marking the entry of Huaxia into the “Age of States.”

Meanwhile, the Yangtze River basin developed in parallel:

  • Liangzhu Culture (c. 3300–2300 BCE, Zhejiang): Famous for its jade civilization, jade being a unique symbol of Chinese civilization. Its ritual system and social hierarchy were highly developed, earning it the title “proof of China’s five-thousand-year civilization.”
  • Ancient DNA studies show that the paternal lineage of the Liangzhu people was also dominated by the O haplogroup (mostly O1, O2), closely related to the O-M122 of the Central Plains Han.
    • This suggests that the Liangzhu people were genetically related to the people of the Central Plains, but they followed a southern path of civilization.

👉 Conclusion: The Yangshao-Longshan-Erlitou sequence represents the direct lineage of the Xia Dynasty, while Liangzhu represents the peak of southern civilization. These northern and southern developments ran in parallel and eventually converged, forming the pluralistic yet unified structure of Huaxia civilization.

4. Ancient DNA and the Paternal Lineage of East Asia

Ancient DNA studies show:

  • The populations of Yangshao, Longshan, and Erlitou share genetic continuity with modern Han, Tibetan, and Qiang peoples.
  • Components of the Liangzhu culture’s population are still present in southern Han Chinese and Miao-Yi ethnic groups.

Over 70% of modern Han Chinese males belong to the O haplogroup (especially O-M122), which is the core paternal marker of the Han people.

Paternal Haplogroup Comparison of Major East Asian Ethnic Groups

  • Han Chinese: 70–80% O haplogroup, the most concentrated.
  • Tibetans: 50–60% O haplogroup, with another 35–45% D-M174 (a remnant of an ancient East Asian indigenous paternal lineage).
  • Qiang: Primarily O haplogroup, continuing ancient Qiang characteristics.
  • Mongols: Primarily C-M217 (50–60%), a typical marker of nomadic peoples.
  • Manchus: Historically similar to Mongols, with C haplogroup being dominant. After entering the Central Plains and long-term intermarriage with the Han, the O haplogroup is now predominant.
  • Japanese: 40–50% O haplogroup, 30–40% D-M174, with a small amount of C.
  • Koreans: 60–70% O haplogroup, with small amounts of C and N.
  • European Comparison: R haplogroup approx. 60–70% (Western Europe dominated by R1b, Eastern Europe by R1a), plus I haplogroup (10–20%), and smaller proportions of E/J/G haplogroups.

👉 Conclusion: The Han O haplogroup is the most stable and concentrated. Tibetans and Japanese retain a significant amount of the ancient D haplogroup. Mongols and Manchus were once dominated by C but eventually integrated into the larger O haplogroup system.

5. Han, Tibetan, and Qiang: Same Origin, Different Branches

The Han, Tibetans, and Qiang all trace their origins to the ancient Qiang people:

  • Han: One branch of the ancient Qiang moved into the Yellow River basin, developed agriculture, and merged with the Yangshao-Longshan-Erlitou cultures to form the Han people (70–80% O haplogroup).
  • Tibetans: Another branch of the ancient Qiang moved onto the Tibetan Plateau, engaged in pastoralism, and merged with the Paleolithic indigenous people carrying D-M174 to form the Tibetan people (O ≈50–60%, D ≈35–45%).
  • Qiang: The Qiang people of today’s Maoxian County in Sichuan (who call themselves “Rma”) are direct descendants of the ancient Qiang.

👉 The Han, Tibetans, and Qiang are brotherly peoples from the same origin but different branches. The Han are the largest branch, while the Tibetans and Qiang retain more ancient genes and unique cultures.

6. Genetic Drift: The High Probability of Minority Genes Disappearing

Why has the Han O haplogroup persisted for thousands of years, while the genes of other ethnic groups have gradually dissipated?

The answer lies in genetic drift.

Genetic drift refers to:

  • Minority genes, having a very low proportion in a population, are susceptible to random fluctuations and have a high probability of disappearing completely after a few generations.
  • Majority genes are more stable and become more entrenched with each passing generation.

This is like gamblers at a casino:

  • Large capital (majority genes) can withstand occasional losses and continue playing.
  • Small capital (minority genes) can be wiped out by a few fluctuations and eliminated from the game.

An Example from Human Evolution

All humans today can be traced back to a single father, “Y-chromosomal Adam,” and a single mother, “Mitochondrial Eve.”

They were not the only people alive at the time, but:

  • Other bloodlines were gradually absorbed or disappeared through genetic drift.
  • Only their lineages survived to become the common ancestors of modern humans.

Meanwhile, “cousins” of Homo sapiens like the Neanderthals and Denisovans eventually went completely extinct.

👉 The pattern is clear: in population fusion, minority genes disappear, and majority genes persist.

7. Case Studies of Historical Peoples

  • Turkic peoples: They once formed a powerful empire in Central Asia and were the ruling class of Turkey. However, the genes of modern Turkish people have almost no connection to East Asia. The Turkic bloodline has dissipated, leaving only the language.
  • Xiongnu: They migrated west to Europe and established the “Hunnic Empire,” but modern Hungarians have almost no Xiongnu genes.
  • Manchus: When they entered the Central Plains during the Qing Dynasty, their paternal lineage was mostly C haplogroup. After three hundred years of integration, the paternal lineage of today’s Manchus is almost identical to that of the Han, primarily O haplogroup.

👉 Historical facts confirm the principle of genetic drift: the genes of minority groups are ultimately absorbed by the majority group.

8. The “Five Barbarians Uprising” and the Misconception of Admixture

Many people claim that after the Uprising of the Five Barbarians, the Han people were thoroughly admixed.

But the facts from genetic testing contradict this:

  • The Han O haplogroup still accounts for 70–80%, making it the most stable genetic structure in East Asia.
  • Other components (C, N, etc.) are present in extremely low proportions, far from enough to alter the main body.
  • Historically, minority ethnic groups were ultimately assimilated by the Han, not the other way around.

👉 The truth is: The Han were not diluted; they were the ones who continuously absorbed others.

This is why today’s Han people still maintain a high degree of stability in the O haplogroup.

9. Religious Culture: Rationality and Inclusiveness

Han culture, like its genetics, exhibits a pattern of “stability + absorption.”

  • Shang Dynasty: Reverence for ghosts and emphasis on sacrifice.
  • Zhou Dynasty: The Duke of Zhou established rites, with ancestor worship at the core.
  • Confucianism: Respect ghosts and spirits but keep them at a distance, focusing on human ethics and ritual governance.
  • Han and Tang Dynasties: Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism coexisted.
  • Song, Ming, and Qing Dynasties: Clan ancestral halls became deeply rooted at the grassroots level.

Characteristics:

  1. Ancestor Worship → The combination of bloodline and culture.
  2. Rationalization → Religion incorporated into the ritual system.
  3. Inclusiveness → Foreign religions could be absorbed.
  4. Secularism → Easy acceptance of science and practice.

👉 The stability of genes and the rational inclusiveness of culture mirror each other perfectly.

10. The True Meaning of the Zhonghua Minzu (Chinese Nation)

  • Linguistics: Chinese, Tibetan, Qiang, and Yi languages → all belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family.
  • Genetics: The Han, Tibetan, and Qiang peoples share the O haplogroup from the ancient Qiang, just in different directions.
  • Historical Culture: The Yan Emperor, Yellow Emperor, Chiyou, and Qiang people → all were eventually incorporated into Huaxia civilization.

👉 Zhonghua Minzu = The Han as the main body + a community of multiple ethnic minorities.

11. Conclusion

From mythology to archaeology, from genetics to culture, the Han people exhibit a “triple continuity”:

  1. Unbroken Historical Culture — Five thousand years of Huaxia, with an uninterrupted cultural lineage.
  2. Stable Genetic Bloodline — The Han O haplogroup as the main trunk, with Tibetans and Qiang from the same origin.
  3. Inclusive and Rational Culture — Foreign religions and cultures were all integrated.

The cultural and genetic heritage of the Han people possesses a distinct ethnic character.

Historical culture and genetic tracing both prove that:

The Han people are the main body of the Zhonghua Minzu, and the Zhonghua Minzu is the civilizational community of China’s multiple ethnic groups.

Only by examining genetics and history can we understand the origins of the Chinese nation.